[1끊어읽기] Toefl question text & translation, 의미노트&답  

Test 1.
Question 1-8.
With Robert Laurent and William Zorach, direct carving enters into the story of
modern sculpture in the United States. Direct carving ― in which the sculptors
themselves carve stone or wood with mallet and chisel ― must be recognized as
Line something more than just a technique. Implicit in it is an aesthetic principle as well :
(5) that the medium has certain qualities of beauty and expressiveness with which
sculptors must bring their own aesthetic sensibilities into harmony. For example,
sometimes the shape or veining in a piece of stone or wood suggests, perhaps even
dictates, not only the ultimate form, but even the subject matter.
The technique of direct carving was a break with the nineteenth-century tradition in
(10) which the making of a clay model was considered the creative act and the work was
then turned over to studio assistants to be cast in plaster or bronze or carved in marble. Neoclassical sculptors seldom held a mallet or chisel in their own hands, readily
conceding that the assistants they employed were far better than they were at carving
the finished marble.
(15) With the turn-of-the-century Crafts movement and the discovery of nontraditional
sources of inspiration, such as wooden African figures and masks, there arose a new
urge for hands-on, personal execution of art and an interaction with the medium. Even
as early as the 1880's and 1890's, nonconformist European artists were attempting
direct carving. By the second decade of the twentieth century, Americans ― Laurent
(20) and Zorach most notably ― had adopted it as their primary means of working.
Born in France, Robert Laurent(1890-1970)was a prodigy who received his
education in the United States. In 1905 he was sent to Paris as an apprentice to an art
dealer, and in the years that followed he witnessed the birth of Cubism, discovered
primitive art, and learned the techniques of woodcarving from a frame maker.
(25) Back in New York City by 1910, Laurent began carving pieces such as The
Priestess, which reveals his fascination with African, pre-Columbian, and South
Pacific art. Taking a walnut plank, the sculptor carved the expressive, stylized design.
It is one of the earliest examples of direct carving in American sculpture. The plank's
form dictated the rigidly frontal view and the low relief. Even its irregular shape must
(30) have appealed to Laurent as a break with a long-standing tradition that required a
sculptor to work within a perfect rectangle or square.

1. The word ?medium?in line 5 could be used to refer to
(A) stone or wood
(B) mallet and chisel
(C) technique
(D) principle

2. What is one of the fundamental principles of direct carving?
(A) A sculptor must work with talented assistants.
(B) The subject of a sculpture should be derived from classical stories.
(C) The material is an important element in a sculpture.
(D) Designing a sculpture is a more creative activity than carving it.

3. The word ?dictates? in line 8 is closest in meaning to
(A) reads aloud (B) determines
(C) includes (D) records


4. How does direct carving differ from the nineteenth-century tradition
of sculpture?
(A) Sculptors are personally involved in the carving of a piece.
(B) Sculptors find their inspiration in neoclassical sources.
(C) Sculptors have replaced the mallet and chisel with other tools.
(D) Sculptors receive more formal training.



5.The word ?witnessed? in line 23 is closest in meaning to
(A) influenced
(B) studied
(C) validated
(D) observed

6. Where did Robert Laurent learn to carve?
(A) New York
(B) Africa
(C) The South Pacific
(D) Paris

7. The phrase ?a break with ?in line 30 is closest in meaning to
(A) a destruction of
(B) a departure from
(C) a collapse of
(D) a solution to

8. The piece titled The Priestess has all of the following characteristics EXCEPT
(A) The design is stylized.
(B) It is made of marble.
(C) The carving is not deep.
(D) It depicts the front of a person.








Question 9 - 19
Birds that feed in flocks commonly retire together into roosts. The reasons for roosting communally are not always obvious, but there are some likely benefits. In winter
especially, it is important for birds to keep warm at night and conserve precious food
Line reserves. One way to do this is to find a sheltered roost. Solitary roosters shelter in
(5) dense vegetation or enter a cavity - horned larks dig holes in the ground and
ptarmigan burrow into snow banks - but the effect of sheltering is magnified by
several birds huddling together in the roosts, as wrens, swifts, brown creepers,
bluebirds, and anis do. Body contact reduces the surface area exposed to the cold air,
so the birds keep each other warm. Two kinglets huddling together were found to
(10) reduce their heat losses by a quarter and three together saved a third of their heat.
The second possible benefit of communal roosts is that they act as ?information centers.? During the day, parties of birds will have spread out to forage over a very
large area. When they return in the evening some will have fed well, but others may
have found little to eat. Some investigators have observed that when the birds set out
(15) again next morning, those birds that did not feed well on the previous day appear to
follow those that did. The behavior of common and lesser kestrels may illustrate
different feeding behaviors of similar birds with different roosting habits. The common
kestrel hunts vertebrate animals in a small, familiar hunting ground, whereas the very
similar lesser kestrel feeds on insects over a large area. The common kestrel roosts and
(20) hunts alone, but the lesser kestrel roosts and hunts in flocks, possibly so one bird can
learn from others where to find insect swarms.
Finally, there is safety in numbers at communal roosts since there will always be a
few birds awake at any given moment to give the alarm. But this increased protection is
partially counteracted by the fact that mass roosts attract predators and are especially
(25) vulnerable if they are on the ground. Even those in trees can be attacked by birds of
prey. The birds on the edge are at greatest risk since predators find it easier to catch
small birds perching at the margins of the roost.

9. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) How birds find and store food
(B) How birds maintain body heat in the winter
(C) Why birds need to establish territory
(D) Why some species of birds nest together

10. The word ?conserve ?in line 3 is closest in meaning to
(A) retain
(B) watch
(C) locate
(D) share

11. Ptarmigan keep warm in the winter by
(A) huddling together on the ground with other birds
(B) building nests in trees
(C) burrowing into dense patches of vegetation
(D) digging tunnels into the snow




12. The word ?magnified?in line 6 is closest in meaning to
(A) caused
(B) modified
(C) intensified
(D) combined

13. The author mentions kinglets in line 9 as an example of birds that
(A) protect themselves by nesting in holes
(B) nest with other species of birds
(C) nest together for warmth
(D) usually feed and nest in pairs

14. The word ?forage?in line 12 is closest in meaning to
(A) fly
(B) assemble
(C) feed
(D) rest

15. Which of the following statements about lesser and common kestrels is true?
(A) The lesser kestrel and the common kestrel have similar diets.
(B) The lesser kestrel feeds sociably but the common kestrel does not.
(C) The common kestrel nests in larger flocks than does the lesser kestrel.
(D) The common kestrel nests in trees; the lesser kestrel nests on the ground.

16. The word ?counteracted?in line 24 is closest in meaning to
(A) suggested
(B) negated
(C) measured
(D) shielded

17. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as an advantage derived
by birds that huddle together while sleeping?
(A) Some members of the flock warn others of impending dangers.
(B) Staying together provides a greater amount of heat for the whole flock
(C) Some birds in the flock function as information centers for others who are
looking for food.
(D) Several members of the flock care for the young.


18. Which of the following is a disadvantage of communal roosts that is mentioned in
the passage?
(A) Diseases easily spread among the birds.
(B) Groups are more attractive to predators than individual birds.
(C) Food supplies are quickly depleted.
(D) Some birds in the group will attack the others.

19. The word ?they?in line 25 refers to
(A) a few birds (B) mass roosts
(C) predators (D) trees



Question 20 - 30
Before the mid-nineteenth century, people in the United States ate most foods only
in season. Drying, smoking, and salting could preserve meat for a short time, but the
availability of fresh meat, like that of fresh milk, was very limited; there was no way to
Line prevent spoilage. But in 1810 a French inventor named Nicolas Appert developed the
(5) cooking-and-sealing process of canning. And in the 1850's an American named Gail
Borden developed a means of condensing and preserving milk. Canned goods and
condensed milk became more common during the 1860's, but supplies remained low
because cans had to be made by hand. By 1880, however, inventors had fashioned
stamping and soldering machines that mass-produced cans from tinplate. Suddenly all
(10) kinds of food could be preserved and bought at all times of the year.
Other trends and inventions had also helped make it possible for Americans to vary
their daily diets. Growing urban populations created demand that encouraged fruit and
vegetable farmers to raise more produce. Railroad refrigerator cars enabled growers
and meat packers to ship perishables great distances and to preserve them for longer
(15) periods. Thus, by the 1890's, northern city dwellers could enjoy southern and western strawberries, grapes, and tomatoes, previously available for a month at most, for up to
six months of the year. In addition, increased use of iceboxes enabled families to store perishables. An easy means of producing ice commercially had been invented in the
1870's, and by 1900 the nation had more than two thousand commercial ice plants,
(20) most of which made home deliveries. The icebox became a fixture in most homes and
remained so until the mechanized refrigerator replaced it in the 1920's and 1930's.
Almost everyone now had a more diversified diet. Some people continued to eat
mainly foods that were heavy in starches or carbohydrates, and not everyone could
afford meat. Nevertheless, many families could take advantage of previously
(25) unavailable fruits, vegetables, and dairy products to achieve more varied fare.

20. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) Causes of food spoilage
(B) Commercial production of ice
(C) Inventions that led to changes in the American diet
(D) Population movements in the nineteenth century

21. The phrase ?in season? in line 2 refers to
(A) a kind of weather
(B) a particular time of year
(C) an official schedule
(D) a method of flavoring food

22. The word ?prevent? in line 4 is closest in meaning to
(A) estimate
(B) avoid
(C) correct
(D) confine



23. During the 1860's, canned food products were
(A) unavailable in rural areas
(B) shipped in refrigerator cars
(C) available in limited quantities
(D) a staple part of the American diet

24. It can be inferred that railroad refrigerator cars came into use
(A) before 1860
(B) before 1890
(C) after 1900
(D) after 1920

25. The word ?them ? in line 14 refers to
(A) refrigerator cars
(B) perishables
(C) growers
(D) distances

26. The word ?fixture? in line 20 is closest in meaning to
(A) luxury item
(B) substance
(C) commonplace object
(D) mechanical device

27. The author implies that in the 1920's and 1930's home deliveries of ice
(A) decreased in number
(B) were on an irregular schedule
(C) increased in cost
(D) occurred only in the summer

28. The word ?Nevertheless? in line 24 is closest in meaning to
(A) therefore
(B) because
(C) occasionally
(D) however

29. Which of the following types of food preservation was NOT mentioned in the passage?
(A) Drying
(B) Canning
(C) Cold storage
(D) Chemical additives

30. Which of the following statements is supported by the passage?
(A) Tin cans and iceboxes helped to make many foods more widely available.
(B) Commercial ice factories were developed by railroad owners.
(C) Most farmers in the United States raised only fruits and vegetables.
(D) People who lived in cities demanded home delivery of foods.













Question 31 - 38
The ability of falling cats to right themselves in midair and land on their feet has
been a source of wonder for ages. Biologists long regarded it as an example of
adaptation by natural selection, but for physicists it bordered on the miraculous.
Line Newton's laws of motion assume that the total amount of spin of a body cannot change
(5) unless an external torque speeds it up or slows it down. If a cat has no spin when it is
released and experiences no external torque, it ought not to be able to twist around as it
falls.
In the speed of its execution, the righting of a tumbling cat resembles a magician's
trick. The gyrations of the cat in midair are too fast for the human eye to follow, so the
(10) process is obscured. Either the eye must be speeded up, or the cat's fall slowed down
for the phenomenon to be observed. A century ago the former was accomplished by
means of high-speed photography using equipment now available in any pharmacy.
But in the nineteenth century the capture on film of a falling cat constituted a scientific experiment.
(15) The experiment was described in a paper presented to the Paris Academy in 1894.
Two sequences of twenty photographs each, one from the side and one from behind,
show a white cat in the act of righting itself. Grainy and quaint though they are, the
photos show that the cat was dropped upside down, with no initial spin, and still landed
on its feet. Careful analysis of the photos reveals the secret ; As the cat rotates the front
(20) of its body clockwise, the rear and tail twist counterclockwise, so that the total spin
remains zero, in perfect accord with Newton's laws. Halfway down, the cat pulls in its
legs before reversing its twist and then extends them again, with the desired end result.
The explanation was that while no body can acquire spin without torque, a flexible one
can readily change its orientation, or phase. Cats know this instinctively, but scientists
(25) could not be sure how it happened until they increased the speed of their perceptions a thousandfold.

31. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) The explanation of an interesting phenomenon
(B) Miracles in modern science
(C) Procedures in scientific investigation
(D) The differences between biology and physics

32. The word ?process?in line 10 refers to
(A) the righting of a tumbling cat
(B) the cat's fall slowed down
(C) high-speed photography
(D) a scientific experiment

33. Why are the photographs mentioned in line 16 referred to as an ?experiment??
(A) The photographs were not very clear.
(B) The purpose of the photographs was to explain the process.
(C) The photographer used inferior equipment.
(D) The photographer thought the cat might be injured.

34. Which of the following can be inferred about high-speed photography in
the late 1800's ?
(A) It was a relatively new technology.
(B) The necessary equipment was easy to obtain.
(C) The resulting photographs are difficult to interpret.
(D) It was not fast enough to provide new information.

35. The word ?rotates? in line 19 is closest in meaning to
(A) drops
(B) turns
(C) controls
(D) touches


36. According to the passage, a cat is able to right itself in midair because it is
(A) frightened
(B) small
(C) intelligent
(D) flexible

37. The word ?readily?in line 24 is closest in meaning to
(A) only
(B) easily
(C) slowly
(D) certainly

38. How did scientists increase ?the speed of their perceptions a
thousandfold?(lines 25-26)?
(A) By analyzing photographs
(B) By observing a white cat in a dark room
(C) By dropping a cat from a greater height
(D) By studying Newton's laws of motion




Question 39 - 50
The changing profile of a city in the United States is apparent in the shifting
definitions used by the United States Bureau of the Census. In 1870 the census
officially distinguished the nation's ?urban? from its ?rural? population for the first
Line time. ?Urban population? was defined as persons living in towns of 8,000 inhabitants
(5) or more. But after 1900 it meant persons living in incorporated places having 2,500 or
more inhabitants.
Then, in 1950 the Census Bureau radically changed its definition of ?urban? to take
account of the new vagueness of city boundaries. In addition to persons living in incorporated units of 2,500 or more, the census now included those who lived in
(10) unincorporated units of that size, and also all persons living in the densely settled urban
fringe, including both incorporated and unincorporated areas located around cities of
50,000 inhabitants or more. Each such unit, conceived as an integrated economic and
social unit with a large population nucleus, was named a Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Area (SMSA).
(15) Each SMSA would contain at least (a) one central city with 50,000 inhabitants or
more or (b) two cities having shared boundaries and constituting, for general economic
and social purposes, a single community with a combined population of at least 50,000,
the smaller of which must have a population of at least 15,000. Such an area included
the county in which the central city is located, and adjacent counties that are found to
(20) be metropolitan in character and economically and socially integrated with the county
of the central city. By 1970, about two-thirds of the population of the United States was
living in these urbanized areas, and of that figure more than half were living outside the
central cities.
While the Census Bureau and the United States government used the term SMSA
(25) (by 1969 there were 233 of them), social scientists were also using new terms to
describe the elusive, vaguely defined areas reaching out from what used to be simple ?towns? and ?cities?. A host of terms came into use : ?metropolitan regions,?
?polynucleated population groups,? ?conurbations,? ?metropolitan clusters,?
?megalopolises,? and so on.

39. What does the passage mainly discuss?
(A) How cities in the United States began and developed
(B) Solutions to overcrowding in cities
(C) The changing definition of an urban area
(D) How the United States Census Bureau conducts a census


40. According to the passage, the population of the United States was
first classified as rural or urban in
(A) 1870
(B) 1900
(C) 1950
(D) 1970

41. The word ?distinguished?in line 3 is closest in meaning to
(A) differentiated (B) removed
(C) honored (D) protected



42. Prior to 1900, how many inhabitants would a town have to have before being defined as urban?
(A) 2,500
(B) 8,000
(C) 15,000
(D) 50,000

43. According to the passage, why did the Census Bureau revise the definition
of urban in 1950?
(A) City borders had become less distinct.
(B) Cities had undergone radical social change.
(C) Elected officials could not agree on an acceptable definition.
(D) New businesses had relocated to larger cities.

44. The word ?those?in line 9 refers to
(A) boundaries
(B) persons
(C) units
(D) areas

45. The word ?constituting? in line 16 is closest in meaning to
(A) located near
(B) determined by
(C) calling for
(D) making up

46. The word ?which ? in line 18 refers to a smaller
(A) population (B) city
(C) character (D) figure


47. Which of the following is NOT true of an SMSA?
(A) It has a population of at least 50,000
(B) It can include a city's outlying regions.
(C) It can include unincorporated regions.
(D) It consists of at least two cities.

48. By 1970, what proportion of the population in the United States did NOT live in
an SMSA?
(A) 3/4 (B) 2/3 (C) 1/2 (D) 1/3


49. The Census Bureau first used the term ?SMSA? in
(A) 1900 (B) 1950 (C) 1969 (D) 1970



50. Where in the passage does the author mention names used by social scientists for
an urban area?
(A) Lines 4-5 (B) Line 7-8 (C) Line 21-23 (D) Line 27-29


Test 2
Question 1 - 8
It is commonly believed in the United States that school is where people go to get an
education. Nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education
to go to school. The distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark
Line is important.
(5) Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling. Education
knows no bounds. It can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or on the job,
whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. It includes both the formal learning that takes place
in schools and the whole universe of informal learning. The agents of education can
range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a
(10) child to a distinguished scientist. Whereas schooling has a certain predictability,
education quite often produces surprises. A chance conversation with a stranger may
lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions. People are engaged in
education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term. It is a
lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that
(15) should be an integral part of one's entire life.
Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general
pattern varies little from one setting to the next. Throughout a country, children arrive
at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult,
use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on. The slices of reality that
(20) are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the workings of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught.
For example, high school students know that they are not likely to find out in their
classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest
filmmakers are experimenting with. There are definite conditions surrounding the
(25) formalized process of schooling.

1. What does the author probably mean by using the expression ?children interrupt
their education to go to school? (lines 2-3) ?
(A) Going to several different schools is educationally beneficial.
(B) School vacations interrupt the continuity of the school year.
(C) Summer school makes the school year too long.
(D) All of life is an education.

2. The word ?bounds?in line 6 is closest in meaning to
(A) rules
(B) experience
(C) limits
(D) exceptions

3. The word ?chance? in line 11 is closest in meaning to
(A) unplanned
(B) unusual
(C) lengthy
(D) lively

4. The word ?an integral? in line 15 is closest in meaning to
(A) an equitable
(B) a profitable
(C) a pleasant
(D) an essential



5. The word ?they? in line 20 refers to
(A) slices of reality
(B) similar textbooks
(C) boundaries
(D) seats

6. The phrase ?For example,? line 22, introduces a sentence that gives
examples of
(A) similar textbooks
(B) the results of schooling
(C) the workings of a government
(D) the boundaries of classroom subjects

7. The passage supports which of the followng conclusions?
(A) Without formal education, people would remain ignorant.
(B) Education systems need to be radically reformed.
(C) Going to school is only part of how people become educated.
(D) Education involves many years of professional training.

8. The passage is organized by
(A) listing and discussing several educational problems
(B) contrasting the meanings of two related words
(C) narrating a story about excellent teachers
(D) giving examples of different kinds of schools


Question 9-17
The hard, rigid plates that form the outermost portion of the Earth are about 100
kilometers thick. These plates include both the Earth's crust and the upper mantle.
The rocks of the crust are composed mostly of minerals with light elements, like
Line aluminum and sodium, while the mantle contains some heavier elements, like iron and
(5) magnesium. Together, the crust and upper mantle that form the surface plates are called
the lithosphere. This rigid layer floats on the denser material of the lower mantle the
way a wooden raft floats on a pond. The plates are supported by a weak, plastic layer
of the lower mantle called the asthenosphere. Also like a raft on a pond, the
lithospheric plates are carried along by slow currents in this more fluid layer beneath
(10) them.
With an understanding of plate tectonics, geologists have put together a new history
for the Earth's surface. About 200 million years ago, the plates at the Earth's surface
formed a ?supercontinent? called Pangaea. When this supercontinent started to tear
apart because of plate movement, Pangaea first broke into two large continental masses
(15) with a newly formed sea that grew between the land areas as the depression filled with
water. The southern one ― which included the modern continents of South America,
Africa, Australia, and Antarctica ― is called Gondwanaland. The northern one ― with
North America, Europe, and Asia ― is called Laurasia. North America tore away from
Europe about 180 million years ago, forming the northern Atlantic Ocean.
(20) Some of the lithospheric plates carry ocean floor and others carry land masses or a combination of the two types. The movement of the lithospheric plates is responsible
for earthquakes, volcanoes, and the Earth's largest mountain ranges. Current
understanding of the interaction between different plates explains why these occur
where they do. For example, the edge of the Pacific Ocean has been called the ?Ring
(25) of Fire? because so many volcanic eruptions and earthquakes happen there. Before the
1960's, geologists could not explain why active volcanoes and strong earthquakes
were concentrated in that region. The theory of plate tectonics gave them an answer.

9. With which of the following topics is the passage mainly concerned?
(A) The contributions of the theory of plate tectonics to geological knowledge
(B) The mineral composition of the Earth's crust
(C) The location of the Earth's major plates
(D) The methods used by scientists to measure plate movement

10. According to the passage, the lithospheric plates are given support by the
(A) upper mantle
(B) ocean floor
(C) crust
(D) asthenosphere

11. The author compares the relationship between the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere to which of the following?
(A) Lava flowing from a volcano
(B) A boat floating on the water
(C) A fish swimming in a pond
(D) The erosion of rocks by running water

12. The word?one?in line 16 refers to
(A) movements
(B) masses
(C) sea
(D) depression

13. According to the passage, the northern Atlantic Ocean was formed when
(A) Pangaea was created
(B) plate movement ceased
(C) Gondwanaland collided with Pangaea
(D) parts of Laurasia separated from each other

14. The word ?carry? in line 20 could best be replaced by
(A) damage
(B) squeeze
(C) connect
(D) support

15. In line 27, the word ?concentrated? is closest in meaning to which of the following?
(A) Allowed
(B) Clustered
(C) Exploded
(D) Strengthened

16. Which of the following can be inferred about the theory of plate tectonics?
(A) It is no longer of great interest to geologists.
(B) It was first proposed in the 1960's.
(C) It fails to explain why earthquakes occur.
(D) It refutes the theory of the existence of a supercontinent.

17. The paragraph following the passage most probably discusses
(A) why certain geological events happen where they do
(B) how geological occurrences have changed over the years
(C) the most unusual geological developments in the Earth's history
(D) the latest innovations in geological measurement











Question18-27
In the United States in the early 1800's, individual state governments had more
effect on the economy than did the federal government. States chartered
manufacturing, banking, mining, and transportation firms and participated in the
Line construction of various internal improvements such as canals, turnpikes, and railroads.
(5) The states encouraged internal improvements in two distinct ways ; first, by actually establishing state companies to build such improvement ; second, by providing part of
the capital for mixed public-private companies setting out to make a profit.
In the early nineteenth century, state governments also engaged in a surprisingly
large amount of direct regulatory activity, including extensive licensing and inspection
(10) programs. Licensing targets reflected both similarities in and differences between the
economy of the nineteenth century and that of today : in the nineteenth century, state
regulation through licensing fell especially on peddlers, innkeepers, and retail
merchants of various kinds. The perishable commodities of trade generally came under
state inspection, and such important frontier staples as lumber and gunpowder were
(15) also subject to state control. Finally, state governments experimented with direct labor
and business regulation designed to help the individual laborer or consumer, including
setting maximum limits on hours of work and restrictions on price-fixing by businesses.
Although the states dominated economic activity during this period, the federal
government was not inactive. Its goals were the facilitation of western settlement and
(20) the development of native industries. Toward these ends the federal government
pursued several courses of action. It established a national bank to stabilize banking
activities in the country and, in part, to provide a supply of relatively easy money to the
&nb










University athletic departments should receive
the same amount of funding
as university libraries.

In order to prepare
their students academically
and help their graduates find jobs,
many universities fund
their libraries and other academic facilities
at the expense of sports activities.
In the "real world" sports are considered
a waste of time at worst
and a pleasant diversion at best.
However, sports improve
students' physical health and social skills.
Therefore, universities should invest
an equal amount of money
in both their students' sports activities and school libraries.

To start with,
sports activities play a pivotal role
in promoting students' physical health.
This is evidenced by a number of clinical studies
that clearly show
that a variety of physically active aerobic exercises
such as a cycling, swimming, and running,
especially during one's twenties,
build and strengthen bones, muscles, and joints.
More importantly,
habitual physical activity has a positive influence on
circulation of blood
and reduces the risk of hypertension and diabetes.
To illustrate this point,
my cousin led a sedentary life
by being glued to the computer
for hours on end everyday.
Inevitably, he suffered from obesity
as a result of his inactive lifestyle.
However, he began to lose considerable weight
after he joined a walkathon club in college
and started walking
for two hours everyday for five months
as his doctor suggested.
Likewise, students can reap numerous health benefits
from participating in sports activities.

Also, sport activities foster
students' social skills.
This is because sports include
a wide variety of group activities
such as soccer, football, and basketball
that require collective effort and cooperation.
The best example of this is a soccer game.
When participating in soccer games,
students have the chance to learn
how to cooperate and work as a team.
They cheer for their teammates,
pass the ball to one another through openings,
and strive together
for the common goal
of leading the game to victory,
one that a single person cannot attain.

To summarize, I definitely believe
that universities should give
the same amount of funds
to students' sports activities
as they do to their libraries.
On the whole,
I agree with the saying
"a sound mind in a sound body."
In other words,
students' mental fitness from healthy social relationship
and physical well-being are
the most important factor
for their success.
Being happy with a job is more important
than having a high salary.

After graduating from school,
people spend the bulk of their time
at their jobs.
Regardless of their salaries,
if they dread going to work,
then they will have difficulty
enjoying the rest of their lives.
In this sense,
finding satisfying positions is more important
than finding lucrative positions.
This is due to the fact
that money alone cannot make
people happy
and if they enjoy their jobs,
they are more likely to success.

Making a lot of money
will not be sufficient
if a person is unhappy.
While money is necessary
in order to survive,
people who choose high salaries
often find themselves stuck in positions
that they aren't satisfied with.
The problems they have with their careers
then taint other aspects of their lives,
making them unhappy.
To illustrate,
my brother always hoped to be a writer,
but took an administrator position
in a high-tech company
because it paid him a higher salary.
However, whenever he came home from work,
he seemed so stressed out
that he did not talk much or eat properly
but just went to bed.
Fortunately, after he left his job
and started building his career
in the literary world,
he enjoyed going to work
and carried that happiness with him
when returning home at night.

Moreover, if people choose jobs
that they are passionate about,
then they have a much greater chance
for success.
This is mainly due to the fact that
they put in more effort
than people
who are merely trying to
earn their paychecks.
While some believe
money to be a great motivator,
nothing compares to the results
of follwing one's dreams.
Steve Jobs, the head of Apple Computers,
is one of the best examples
that demonstrate this point.
He had to start his business
from his garage,
and he spent night and day
putting parts together
because he was dedicated to
changing the world with computers.
Due to has enthusiasm toward his work,
Jobs has improved the world for everyone
and won the respect of his peers.
He succeeded
because he had found his calling.

For these reasons,
I strongly agree
that being happy with a job should come
before the benefits of a high salary,
since people who find pleasure
in their work are happier
and do better than people
who only value money.
Unfortunately, people are drawn in
by the allure of high-paying jobs
and do not stop to think of the impact
that such positions will have
on other aspects of their lives.
By choosing careers that they enjoy,
people will, in the long run,
have more balanced lives.

 

*Toefl question text  (해석 및 답)


본문해석

Test 1
Question 1-8
Robert Laurent 그리고 William Zorach 와 함께 direct carving 은 미국에서 현대조각의 역사에 들어가게 되었다. direct carving 은 ― 그 분야에서는 조각가 자신이 망치와 정을 가지고 돌이나 나무에 새기는 것인데 ― 단순한 하나의 기법이상의 어떤 것으로 인정되어야한다. 그 안에는 미적 원리 같은 것이 역시 내재되어있다. 매체가 미와 표현의 어떤 특질들을 가지는데, 이 특질들로써 조각가는 자신의 미적 감각을 조화롭게 만드는 것이다. 예를 들면, 때때로 돌이나 나무 조각의 모양이나 결이 궁극적이 모양뿐만 아니라 작품의 주제를 제시하고, 또는 지시하기까지도 한다.
direct carving 의 기법은 19 세기 전통으로부터의 탈피인데, 그 19 세기 전통에서는 진흙모형을 만드는 것이 창작적인 미술로 간주되었고 그 다음에 그 작품은 작업실의 조수들에게 넘겨져서 석고나 청동에 주조되든가 대리석에 새겨졌다. 신고전주의 조각가들은 그들 자신의 손에 거의 망치나 정을 들지 않았으며, 그들이 고용한 조수들이 최종대리석작품을 조각하는데 있어서 자신들보다 훨씬 낫다는 것을 기꺼이 인정했다.
세기가 바뀔 때(20세기초)의 공예운동과 목재로 만든 아프리카의 형상이나 마스크 같은 비전통적인 영감의 근원의 발견으로 인하여, 손수 행하는 개인적인 미술의 실행과 매체와의 교감에 대한 촉구가 일어났다. 일찍이 1880년대와 1890년대에조차도 이미 개혁주의 유럽 미술가들은 direct carving을 시도하고 있었다. 1920년대까지 미국인들은 ― 그 중에서 Laurent 와 Zorach 가 가장 주목할만한데 ― 그것을 그들의 주요작업수단으로 채택했다.
프랑스에서 태어난 Robert Laurent(1890-1970)는 미국에서 교육을 받았던 하나의 신동이었다. 1905년에 그는 파리의 한 미술상에 도제로 보내졌고, 그 뒤에 따르는 몇 년 후에 입체파의 탄생을 목격했고, 원시미술을 발견했고, 어떤 표구상으로부터 목재조각의 기법을 배웠다.
1910년 New Work City로 돌아와서 Laurent 는 The Priestess 와 같은 조각작품들을 시작했는데 그 작품은 아프리카 미술과 (미국)콜럼부스이전의 미술과 남태평양 미술 등에 대한 그의 매혹을 보여준다. 호두나무판자를 택해서, 그 조각가는 그 표현력 있고 스타일 있는 디자인을 조각했다. 그것은 미국조각에 있어서 direct carving의 가장 초창기 예들 중의 하나이다. 그 판자의 형태가 엄격하게 정면만을 보여주는 모습과 낮은 부조를 지시했다. 그것의 불규칙한 모양조차도, 조각가에게 완벽하게 직사각형이나 정사각형 안에서만 작업하도록 요구했던 오래 지속되어온 전통으로부터의 탈피로서, Laurent 의 마음을 끌었음에 틀림없다.


Question 9-19
무리를 지어 식사하는(먹이를 먹는) 새들은 흔히 함께 숙소로 돌아간다. (공동거주를 한다) 공동거주를 하는 이유들이 항상 뚜렷한 것은 아니지만, 가능한 혜택이 있을 것이다. 특히 겨울에는 새들이 밤에 따뜻함을 유지하고 귀중한 음식 저장물을 보존하는 것이 중요하다. 이것을 하는 하나의 방법은 피난처가 될 수 있는 숙소 sheltered roost 를 구하는 것이다. 독립적으로 기거하는 새들은 밀집한 숲에 거주하든가 또는 구멍으로 들어간다 ― horned larks 라는 종달새는 땅에 구멍을 파고, ptarmigan 이란 새는 눈제방에 굴을 파고 들어간다 ― 그런데, 거주의 효과는, wrens, swifts, brown creepers, bluebirds, and anis 등의 새들이 하는 것과 같이, 여러 마리의 새가 거주지에 함께 붙어있을 때 증가된다. 신체적인 접촉은 찬 공기에 노출되는 표면적을 감소시킨다. 그래서 새들이 서로를 따뜻하게 유지시켜준다. kinglets 이라는 새가 두 마리가 함께 붙어있으면 열 손실을 1/4 정도 감소시키는 것으로, 그리고 3마리가 함께 있으면 그들의 열의 1/3을 절약하는 것으로 밝혀졌다.
공동거주의 두 번째로 가능한 혜택은 그들이 정보 센터로 역할을 한다는 것이다. 낮 동안에는 여러무리의 새들이 넓은 지역에 걸쳐서 흩어져 나갈 것이다. 그들이 저녁에 돌아왔을 때 어떤 새들은 잘 먹었을 것이고 어떤 다른 새들은 먹을 것을 별로 구하지 못했을 수도 있다. 어떤 조사자(과학자)들이 관찰했는데, 그 새들이 다음날 아침에 다시 나갈 때 전 날 잘 못 먹었던 새들이 전날 잘먹었던 새들을 따라가는 것으로 보였다. common kestrel 과 lesser kestrel 이라는 두 종류의 새가 있는데 그들의 행동이 다른 거주 습관을 가진 비슷한 새들의 서로 다른 식사습관을 예증한다. common kestrel 은 작고 친숙한 사냥지역에서 척추동물을 사냥하고 반면에 아주 비슷하게 생긴 lesser kestrel 은 넓은 지역에 걸쳐서 곤충들을 먹고산다. common kestrel 은 혼자서 사냥하고 잠자는데 lesser kestrel 은 무리를 지어 잠자고 사냥한다. 그래서 아마도 한 새가 다른 새들로부터 어디서 곤충의 군집을 발견할 수 있는지 배울 수 있을 것이다.
마지막으로, 항상 경각시키기 위해서(위험을 알리기 위해서) 새들 중의 몇 마리는 깨어있으므로 많은 숫자로 공동 거주하는 것은 안전을 보장할 수 있다. 그러나 이러한 증대된 방어의 효과가, 집단거주가 오히려 적을 유인하고 그들이 땅에 있을 때는 특히 더 취약하다는 사실에 의해서, 부분적으로 상쇄될 수도 있다. 나무에 사는 새들조차도 맹금류의 공격을 받을 수 있다. 적들은 집단거주지의 가장자리에 앉아있는 작은 새들을 잡는 것이 더 쉽다는 것을 알기 때문에 가장자리에 있는 새들은 가장 큰 위험을 안게된다.


Question 20-30
19세기 중엽 이전에 미국사람들은 음식을 단지 제철에만 먹었다. 건조, 훈제, 염장 등은 고기를 짧은 기간동안 저장할 수 있다, 그러나 신선하나 고기를 구하는 것은, 신선한 우유를 구하는 것과 마찬가지로, 매우 한정되어있었다 ; 그리고 부패를 막는 방법이 없었다. 그러나 1810년에 Nicolas Appert 라는 한 프랑스의 발명가가 통조림의 요리하고 밀봉하는 공정을 개발해냈다. 그리고 1850년대에는 Gail Borden 이라는 미국인이 우유를 농축해서 보존하는 공정을 개발했다. 통조림된 상품과 농축된 우유는 1860년대 동안에 매우 흔해졌다. 그러나 깡통이 수공으로 만들어졌으므로 공급은 항상 저조했다. 그러나 1880년까지 발명가들은 양철로부터 깡통을 대량생산해내는 판금과 용접기계를 만들어냈다. 갑자기 모든 종류의 음식이 보존되어서 연중 언제든지 구입할 수 있게되었다.
다른 추세와 발명들도 역시 미국인들이 그들의 일상 식사를 다양화시키는데 도움이 되었다. 증가하는 도시인구가, 과일 및 야채 농가들로 하여금 더 많은 농산물을 재배하도록 자극하는, 수요를 창출하게 되었다. 냉장기차가 재배자들과 고기 포장업자들로 하여금 장거리까지 부패성 상품(고기, 야채 등)을 수송할 수 있게 해주고 그것들을 더 장기간 보존할 수 있게 해주었다. 그래서 1890년대까지 북부도시의 거주자들이 남부와 서부의 딸기, 포도, 토마토 등을 년중 6개월까지 즐길 수 있게 되었다. 전에는 단지 기껏해야 한달 동안만 구할 수 있었는데. 게다가 아이스박스의 사용의 증가가 가족들로 하여금 부패성 식품을 저장할 수 있게 해주었다. 1870년대에 이미 상업적으로 얼음을 생산하는 쉬운 방법이 발명되었고 1900년대까지 미국에는 2,000개 이상의 상업적인 얼음공장이 생겨났는데 그 중의 대부분은 가정에 배달을 해주었다. 아이스박스는 모든 가정의 필수품이 되었고 나중에 1920 년대와 1930 연대에 기계화된 냉장고가 그것을 대치할 때까지 그 상태로 있었다. (모든 가정의 필수품이었다.)
그래서 이제는 거의 모든 사람이 더욱 다양화된 식사를 할 수 있었다. 어떤 사람들은 계속해서 주로 녹말과 탄수화물이 많은 음식을 먹었는데, 모든 사람이 고기를 먹을 수 있는 것은 아니었다. 그러나, 많은 가족들은 더 다양한 식사(음식)를 성취(획득)하기 위해서 전에는 구할 수 없었던 과일, 야채, 그리고 낙농제품들을 이용할 수 있었다.

Question 31-38
공중에서 자신의 몸을 바로잡아서 발로 딛으면서 떨어지는 고양이의 능력은 오랜 세월동안 경이의 근원이었다. 생물학자들은 오랫동안 그것은 자연선택에 의한 환경적응의 예로 간주했다. 그러나 물리학자들에게 그것은 기적에 가까웠다. 뉴턴의 운동법칙에서는 한 물체의 총 스핀(회전력)은, 외부적인 토크(비틀어주는, 회전시켜주는 힘)가 그것을 가속시키거나 감속시키지 않는 한, 변할 수가 없다는 것을 전제한다. 만약에 고양이가 공중에서 떨어질 때 처음에 스핀을 가지지 않고 외부적인 토크를 가지지 않는다면, 그것은 떨어지면서 몸을 비틀 수 없어야지 당연하다.
그것이 행해지는 속도에 있어서 떨어지는 고양이의 몸을 바로잡기는 마술사의 마술과 흡사하다. 공중에서 고양이가 회전하는 것은 인간의 눈이 보기에는 너무 빠르기 때문에, 그래서 그 과정이 불분명하다. 그 현상이 관찰되기 위해서는 사람의 눈이 가속화되는가 아니면 그 낙하가 느려지든가 해야한다. 한 세기 전에, 지금은 어느 약국에서든지 구입할 수 있는 그러한 장비를 이용하는 고속촬영이라는 수단을 통해서 전자가 실행되었다. 19세기에는 떨어지는 고양이를 영상으로 포착하는 것은 하나의 과학 실험으로 간주되었다.(지금은 과학자들만이 하는 것이 아니고 누구나 할 수 있는 간단한 일이지만).
그 실험은 1894년에 Paris Academy 에 제출된 한 논문에서 설명되었다. 하나는 옆에서 찍고 하나는 뒤에서 찍은 각각 20장으로 된 두 묶음의 연속된 사진이 자신을 바로잡는 흰 고양이를 보여주었다. 비록 화상이 흐릿하고 괴상해 보이지만, 그 사진들은 그 고양이가 처음에 아무런 스핀도 없이 거꾸로 떨어지는데 그래도 발로 땅을 딛으면서 착륙하는 것을 보여준다. 그 사진들의 세밀한 분석이 그 비밀을 알려준다 : 고양이가 그 몸의 앞부분을 시계방향으로 회전하면서 몸의 뒷부분과 꼬리는 반 시계 방향으로 회전한다. 그래서 뉴턴의 운동법칙에 정확히 일치하며, 총 스핀의 양은 0 을 유지한다. 반쯤 떨어졌을 때 고양이는 다리를 끌어당기고 다음에 그 비틀림 운동을 역으로 하고 다리를 뻗는다. 그리하여 원하는 최종결과를 얻는다. 그 설명은, 어떤 물체도 토크가 없이는 스핀을 얻을 수 없지만 유연성 있는 물체는 그것의 방향 또는 양상을 쉽게 변화시킬 수 있다는 것이다. 고양이는 이것을 본능적으로 알고 있다. 그러나 과학자들은 그들의 인식속도를 수 천 배 증가시킨 후에서야 비로소 어떻게 그런 일이 생기는지를 알게되었다.

Question 39-50
미국에서 한 도시의 변화하는 면모는 미국 인구조사국에서 사용하는 바뀌는 정의에 의해서 뚜렷이 나타난다. 1870년에 처음으로 인구조사는 미국의 도시와 시골을 공식적으로 구분했다. 도시 인구는 8,000명 이상 거주하는 마을에 사는 사람으로 정의되었다. 그러나 1900년 이후에 그것은 2,500명 이상을 가진 병합된 지역에 사는 사람들을 의미했다.
그 다음에, 1950년에 인구조사국은 도시의 정의를 획기적으로 변경하여, 도시 경계선의 새로운 애매모호함을 고려하게되었다. 2,500명 이상을 가진 병합된 지역에 사는 사람들에 추가해서, 그 규모의 병합되지 않은 지역에 사는 사람들과, 50,000 명 이상의 도시의 주위에 위치한 병합된 지역과 병합되지 않은 지역을 포함하여 밀도 높게 사람들이 거주하는 도시 외곽도 역시 포함했다. 거대인구의 핵심을 가지는 경제적으로 그리고 사회적으로 하나의 단위라고 간주될 수 있는 각각의 그런 단위는 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA / 표준도시 통계지역)이라고 불리게되었다.
각 SMSA 는 최소한 (a) 50,000 이상의 주민을 가진 하나의 중심도시, 또는 (b) 공통 경계선을 가지면서 일반 경제적 그리고 사회적 목적을 위해서 하나의 지역사회를 구성하고 둘이 합쳐서 최소한 50,000 의 인구를 가지는 두 도시 (그런데 그 중 작은 도시가 최소 15,00 명의 인구를 가지는)를 포함했다. 그러한 지역은, 그 안에 중심도시가 위치하고 있는 카운티와, 특성상 대도시권이라고 보여지며 윗줄의 그 중심도시가 위치한 카운티와 경제적, 사회적으로 통합되어 있다고 보이는 인접한 카운티들을 포함했다. 1970년까지 미국인구의 2/3 가 이러한 도시화된 지역에 살고있으며, 그 수치 중에서 반은 중심도시의 외곽에 살고있었다.
인구조사국과 미국정부가 SMSA 라는 용어를 사용하는 한편, 사회과학자들은 과거에 단순히 ?towns? 와 ?cities? 였던 것들로부터 벗어나는 이해하기 힘들고 애매한 지역들을 묘사하기 위해서 새로운 용어들을 사용했는데, 즉 ?metropolitan regions,? ?polynucleated population groups,? ?conurbations,? ?metropolitan clusters,? “megalopolises,? 등등이다.


Test 2
Question 1-8
미국에서 흔히 학교라는 것은 사람들이 교육을 얻기 위해서 가는 곳이라고 믿어진다. 그러나 오늘날 아이들은 학교를 가기 위해서 교육을 방해받는다고 흔히들 말한다. 이 말에 의해서 암시되는 "학교 공부"와 "교육"의 구분은 중요하다.
"교육"은 "학교 공부"보다 훨씬 더 광범위한 목적을 가지며 모든 것을 포괄한다. 교육은 경계선(한계)을 가지지 않는다. 그것은 샤워를 하면서, 일을 하면서, 부엌에 있을 때나 트랙터에 타고있을 때 등등 어디서나 발생한다. 그것은 학교에서 하는 공식적인 학습과 비공식적 학습의 전체 세계를 포함한다. 교육의 매개인(교육하는 사람)은 경외받는 조부모로부터 라디오에서 정치를 토론하는 사람들에 이르기까지, 어린아이로부터 저명한 과학자들까지 광범위하다. "학교 공부"는 어느 정도의 예측성을 가지는 반면에, 교육의 괘 자주 놀라움을 일으킨다. 낯선 사람과의 우연한 대화가 한 사람으로 하여금 다른 종교들에 관해서 얼마나 적게 알고 있는가를 깨닫게 이끌어준다. 인간은 유아시절부터 계속해서 교육에 가담한다. 그렇다면 교육은 매우 넓고, 포괄적인 용어이다. 그것은 평생의 과정이고, 학교교육이 시작하기 훨씬 전부터 시작하는 과정이며, 인간의 전 생애에서 빠질 수 없는 중요한 부분이 되어야하는 그런 하나의 과정이다.
반면에, "학교 공부"는 구체적이고 공식화된 과정인데, 그것의 일반적 양상은 하나의 환경에서 다른 환경으로 감에 따라 별로 큰 차이가 없다. 한 나라 전체에 걸쳐서 아이들은 거의 같은 시간에 학교에 도착하고, 지정된 자리에 앉고, 어른에 의해서 교육받고, 비슷한 교과서를 사용하고, 숙제하고, 시험보고 ...등등을 한다. 학습되어야할 현실의 조각들은, 그것이 알파벳이건 정부 운영에 관한 이해이건, 교육되는 과목의 범위에 의해서 일반적으로 한정된다. 예를 들어, 고등학교 학생들은 그들이 학교공부에서, 지역사회에서 일어나는 정치 문제들의 진실이나 최신 영화제작자들이 무엇을 가지고 실험하고있는지 등을 알게될 가능성이 별로 없다는 것을 알고 있다. 학교 공부의 공식화된 과정을 둘러싸는 한정된 조건들이 있는 것이다.


Question 9-17
지구의 가장 바깥 부분을 형성하는 단단하고 굳은 지판들은 약 100 km 의 두께이다. 이 지판들은 지구의 지각과 상부맨틀을 포함한다.
지각의 바위들은 알루미늄이나 나트륨 같은 가벼운 원소를 가진 광물질들로 주로 구성되며, 한편 맨틀은 철이나 마그네슘 같이 무거운 원소들을 포함한다. 지표의 지판들을 형성하고있는 지각과 상부맨틀은 암석권(lithosphere)라고 불린다. 이 굳은 층은 나무 뗏목이 연못에 떠있는 것과 같은 방식으로 하부맨틀의 밀도 높은 물질 위에 떠 있는 것이다. 지판들은 취약권(asthenosphere)이라고 불리는 약하고 유연성 있는 하부맨틀의 층에 의해서 지지되고 있다. 역시 연못에 떠있는 뗏목처럼, 암석권 지판들은 그들의 밑에 있는 더욱 액체성을 띈 층에서의 (조류같은) 흐름을 따라서 이리저리 이동된다.
지판구조지질학(plate tectonics)을 이해함으로써, 지질학자들은 지구표면에 관한 새로운 역사를 밝혀냈다. 약 2억년전에 지표상의 지판들은 판지아라고 불리는 초대륙을 형성했었다. 이 초대륙이 지판이동 때문에 쪼개지기 시작했을 때, 판지아는 우선 두 개의 거대한 대륙 덩어리로 갈라졌는데, 갈라진 틈 사이로 물이 가득 차면서 그 두 대륙사이에 하나의 새로운 바다가 형성되었다. 그 남쪽의 것(대륙) ― 지금의 남미, 아프리카, 호주, 남극대륙들을 포함한 것 ― 은 “곤드와나랜드”라고 불렸고, 그 북쪽의 것(대륙) ― 북미, 유럽, 아시아를 포함하는 ― 은 “로라시아”라고 불렸다. 북미는 1억 8천만년 전에 유럽으로부터 갈라져서 북대서양을 만들었다.
암석권 지판들 중의 일부는 바다의 바닥을 지탱하며(밑에서 떠받치며), 다른 지판들은 땅덩어리또는 그 두가지(바다의 바닥과 땅덩어리)가 결합된 것을 지탱한다. 암석권 지판들의 움직임이 지진, 화산, 그리고 지구의 가장 큰 산맥에 대해서 책임이 있다. 다른 지판들 사이의 상호작용에 관한 오늘날의 이해가, 왜 이런 현상들이 그들이 발생하는 바로 그곳에서 발생하는지를 설명한다. 예를 들면, 태평양의 가장자리는, 매우 많은 화산분출과 지진들이 거기에서 발생하기 때문에 ?Ring of Fire?라고 불렸다. 1960년대 이전에 지질학자들은 왜 활동적인 화산과 강한 지진들이 그 지역에 집중되어있는지 설명할 수 없었다. 지판구조지질학의 이론이 그들에게 대답을 주었다.


Question18-27
미국에서 1800년대 초에, 연방정부보다 각각의 주정부가 경제에 더 많은 영향을 끼쳤다. 각 주들은 제조업, 금융업, 광업, 그리고 운수업체들의 허가를 내주고, 운하, 고속도로, 철도와 같은 여러 가지 국내시설 발전의 건설에 참여하였다. 각 주들은 두 가지 뚜렷한 방식으로 국내시설 발전을 격려하였는데, 첫째, 그런 시설물들을 건설할 주정부회사(공기업)을 실제로 설립함으로써, 둘째는, 공사합동기업들이 이익을 내기 시작하도록 자금의 일부를 지원함으로써.
19세기초에 주정부들은, 광범위한 허가와 검사 프로그램을 포함하여 놀라울 정도로 많은 양의 직접 통제활동에 참가했다. 허가대상들이 19세기 경제와 오늘날 경제의 유사성과 차이점을 반영해주었는데, 즉, 19세기에 허가를 통한 주정부의 통제는 특히 행상과 여관업과 여러 종류의 소매상 등에 주로 해당되었다. 상할 수 있는 교역되는 상품들은 일반적으로 주정부의 검사를 받았다. 목재와 화약 같은 개척지의 주요 필수품들 역시 주정부의 통제를 받았다. 마지막으로 주정부는, 개인 노동자와 소비자를 돕기 위해 고안된, 노동과 사업의 직접 규제를 실험하였는데, 노동시간에 관해 최대한계를 설정하는 것과, 업체들에 의한 가격조작에 관해 규제를 하는 것 등을 포함했다.
이 기간동안에 각 주들이 경제활동을 주도했지만 연방정부도 비활동적이었던 것은 아니다. 연방정부의 목적은 서부정착을 용이하게 만드는 것과 토속산업의 발전이었다. 이 목적들을 위해서 연방정부는 여러가지 코스의 활동을 추구했다. 연방정부는 미국에서 금융활동을 안정시키기 위해서 그리고 부분적으로는, 정착을 위해서 그것이 매우 요구되는 개척지역에 비교적 쉬운 돈의 공급을 제공하기 위해서, 국립은행을 설립했다. 연방정부는 점점 더 쉬운 조건으로 일반인의 서부지역 진입을 허용했는데, 1862년에 the Homestead Act 라는 법에서 그 절정에 달했다. 이 법에 의하여 토지의 소유권은 거주를 근거로 해서만 주장될 수 있었다. 마지막으로 연방정부는, 사실상 근본적으로 보호주의라고 할 수 있는 관세제도를 만들었다, 비록 여러 지역적 이해관계에 의해서 좋은 위상을 얻기 위한 조정이 흔히 19세기 전체에 걸쳐서 관세율에 있어서의 흔한 변경을 가져왔지만...

Question 28-37
생명은 지구가 형성된지 10억년 후에 초기의 바다에서 기원했다. 그러나 대륙에 동식물이 나타나기까지는 다시 30억 년이 흘러야만 되었다. 생명체가 바다로부터 육지로 이동한 것은 아마 생명의 기원 자체만큼이나 그렇게 대단한 진화적인 변화였다.
어떤 형태의 생명체가 생활스타일에 있어서 그렇게 극적인 변화를 할 수 있었는가? 첫 번째 육상 유기체에 관한 전통적인 견해는 거대화석 ― 근본적으로 동물이나 식물의 전체를 보존

 

 

*학습방법* 1.읽기: [끊어읽기-읽고쓰기] 내용을 의미어구에 따라 끊어서 쓰고 어구번호 붙이기 2.듣기: [끊어듣기-듣고말하기] 내용을 듣고 의미어구 단위로 끊어서 따라 말하기

(어구번호: 주어구1, 술보어구2, 목적어구3, 부사구4, 분사구5, 관계사구6) 3.쓰기:[끊어쓰기-바꿔쓰기] 내용을 보면서 옆에 /표시하고 의미를 바꿔서 쓰기 4.말하기: [끊어말하기-바꿔말하기] 내용을 듣고 의미어구 단위로 바꿔서 말하기